The legislative context of sustainable commercial buildings

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This article focuses on regulation concerning sustainability for commercial buildings, in both Australian and international contexts.

Summary

In the legislative environment, commercial buildings generally refer to Class 5-9 buildings in accordance with the Building Code of Australia (BCA) classification. 'Sustainability' indicates issues associated with energy efficiency, water efficiency, material usage and indoor environment quality. Only regulatory requirements concerning buildings are discussed in this article; many other sustainability requirements are included in planning regulation and can be found in Your Project.

An understanding of the Australian legislative environment is necessary to appreciate the nature and limitations of the regulatory requirements. In a market economy, the basic regulatory principle is to prescribe minimum requirements designed to eliminate worst practice. The current mandatory requirements — common to most states and territories — are the energy efficiency provisions of the Building Council of Australia, and other existing building provisions. This article also lists the sustainability requirements and related legislation particular to each Australian state and territory. Finally, some comments are provided on future prospects for regulating aspects of sustainability that are considered to be within the building regulation domain, such as energy, water, material usage, indoor environment and sustainability rating tools. Specific proposals from the various Australian states and territories are also outlined.

Definitions

This article examines regulation concerning sustainability for commercial buildings, in both Australian and international contexts.

What is regulation?

The Office of Regulation Review defines regulation as '... any laws or other government "rules" which influence the way people behave' (ORR, 1998, p.A1). In the context of this article, 'regulation' means explicit government regulation (i.e. requirements enacted by legislative instruments such as boards, agencies or departments, which have legal sanctions attached). Regulation is considered important when there is a high degree of public interest, when certainty and universal application are required, and/or when there is a systemic compliance problem (adapted from DITR, 2002, p.10).

What is sustainability?

Definitions of 'sustainability' are complex and varied. In the legislative environment, various definitions have been given to terms like 'sustainable development' and 'ecological sustainability' in Planning or Building Acts. A typical definition from the ACT Planning and Development Bill 2006 (p.5) is as follows:

'Sustainable development means the effective integration of social, economic and environmental considerations in decision-making processes, achievable through implementation of the following principles:

1. the precautionary principle
2. the inter-generational equity principle
3. conservation of biological diversity and ecological integrity
4. appropriate valuation and pricing of environmental resources.

The precautionary principle means that, if there is a threat of serious or irreversible environmental damage, a lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation.

The inter-generational equity principle means that the present generation should ensure that the health, diversity and productivity of the environment is maintained or enhanced for the benefit of future generations.'

The Building Code of Australia (BCA) does not give a definition of sustainability, but the Australian Building Codes Board (ABCB) has indicated that sustainability will be a goal for the BCA, in addition to safety, health and amenity (none of these terms are defined). Furthermore, the ABCB has also indicated that the sustainability areas of specific interest are energy efficiency, water efficiency, efficiency in material usage, and indoor environmental conditions (ABCB, 2004).

The Australian legislative environment

General framework

The Australian building legislative environment is a complex array of legislation, involving 880 different statutory bodies. Australia has a three-tiered government structure, consisting of Commonwealth, state or territory, and local governments. State and territory governments are responsible for building and construction, in accordance with the Australian constitution.

The Commonwealth Government has no direct responsibility for building control (except for its own buildings). However, in cases of conflict, Commonwealth laws usually over-ride state laws. The Department of the Environment and Water Resources (formerly the Department of the Environment and Heritage) was created to administer national environmental laws, including the Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. It also manages the Australian Greenhouse Office (AGO), which is the national lead agency on greenhouse matters. The AGO work program includes building-related issues of a non-mandatory nature. The Commonwealth Government also has one of the largest property portfolios in the country and hence has the potential to significantly influence sustainability practice, via government operation policies related to its own buildings (AGO, 2006).

At the state and territory level, Planning and/or Development Acts control some (but not all) planning and building activities. An Act usually separates 'planning' and 'building' requirements; 'planning' requirements are those concerning the relationship between the building and its environment, whereas 'building' requirements are concerned with the building itself. Building requirements are further divided into 'technical' and 'administrative' requirements. The Building Code of Australia (BCA) (ABCB, 2007) is a national document, containing most of the technical requirements common to all states and territories. There are also other regulations concerning plumbing, electrical safety and construction safety (see figure titled 'Typical Australian state and territory regulatory framework' below for an overall picture of the system). In addition to the BCA, states and territories have other mechanisms for building control. For example, Queensland has its own version of the Building Code, while in South Australia and Western Australia, government ministers can issue their own specifications.

Sustainability requirements can be included in 'planning', 'building' ('technical' or 'administrative') or 'other' requirements. This article is only concerned with 'building' requirements.

Further requirements may be imposed by local governments, which operate under state-based local government Acts. The power of local governments varies between states. In NSW, local governments can, and do, impose other requirements above the minimum prescribed by the BCA (usually under 'planning'). However, such power is not available to local governments in other states and territories.

All Commonwealth, state and territory Acts and regulations referred to in this article can be found at http://www.austlii.edu.au/databases.html (accessed 16 May 2007).

Basic regulatory principles

A market economy relies on free and efficient markets to allocate resources and to maximise economic growth. If the market fails to provide the desired outcomes, governments can intervene by using either economic tools (e.g. taxes, tariffs or subsidies) or regulatory tools (to prohibit certain types of behaviour). The Council of Australian Governments (COAG) has published Principles and guidelines for national standard setting and regulatory action by ministerial councils and standard-setting bodies (COAG, 1997). Building regulation, particularly the BCA, is formulated in accordance with these guidelines.

Essentially, the guidelines require building regulations to:

• be the last resort, not the first option
• be minimal requirements, aimed at eliminating worst practice
• provide a level playing field for fair competition
• not restrict international trade.
  

Building Code of Australia (BCA)

The BCA is set of provisions for the design and construction of buildings. It was adopted by all states and territories with variations (included in the appendixes). The BCA is produced and maintained by the Australian Building Codes Board (ABCB), on behalf of the Commonwealth Government and each state and territory government.

The provisions of the BCA (ABCB, 2007) are mainly concerned with the safety, health and amenity of buildings. Recently, sustainability has been added as an additional goal. The BCA is a performance-based code; it sets out the level of performance that a building is to achieve, but allows the use of alternative or innovative materials and forms of construction or designs, as long as it can be demonstrated that the building solution meets the performance requirements (see figure titled 'Structure of a performance-based building code' below). This is particularly relevant in developing sustainability solutions. For user-friendliness, at least one approved solution is provided in detail in the BCA — this is known as the 'deemed-to-satisfy' (DTS) provision.

Other relevant regulations

There are a number of other regulations that are relevant to commercial buildings. These include:

• Plumbing Code of Australia (PCA): The PCA (NPRF, 2004) is a set of provisions for the design and construction of plumbing installation. It is administered by the National Plumbing Regulators Forum, an independent forum representing various stakeholders, including all state governments. Most states and territories call up only parts of the PCA in their regulations. The PCA is a performance-based code and includes 'conserve water and energy' as an objective. However, current content of the PCA is mainly concerned with installation. The PCA refers to AS/NZS 3500 (SA, 2003) for its 'deemed-to-satisfy' provisions, which dictate the use of certified products. 
• OH&S Acts, regulations and codes of practice: States and territories have responsibility for making and enforcing laws related to occupational health and safety (OH&S). Each state and territory has a principal OH&S Act, setting out requirements for ensuring that workplaces are safe and healthy.  These requirements spell out the duties of different groups of people who play a role in workplace health and safety. Some workplace hazards have the potential to cause so much injury or disease that specific regulations or codes of practice are warranted. These regulations and codes, adopted under state and territory OH&S Acts, explain the duties of particular groups of people in controlling the risks associated with specific hazards. OH&S regulations are legally enforceable. Codes of practice provide advice on how to meet regulatory requirements; as such, they are not legally enforceable, but can be used in courts as evidence that legal requirements have or have not been met (http://www.ascc.gov.au/ascc/HealthSafety/OHSstandards/OHSstandardsandcodesofpractice.htm, date accessed 16 May 2007).
  

Building classification

Part A3, Volume 1 of the BCA divides buildings into ten classes (ABCB, 2007). This system is basically a fire safety classification and is not necessarily suitable for other purposes. For the purposes of energy efficiency, buildings have been regrouped as follows:

Class	Type of occupancy
1 & 10	Houses (single family dwellings, small boarding houses) & non-habitable buildings (sheds, carports, swimming pools etc.)
2-4	Residential buildings (apartments, flats, hotels etc.)
5-9	Public or commercial buildings (offices, shops, factories, hospitals etc.)

In general, the term 'commercial' is used to indicate Class 5-9 buildings, in order to distinguish them from 'housing' (Classes 1 & 10) and 'residential' (Classes 2-4). Class 3 (non-private residential) is sometimes classified as 'commercial' as well. Planning laws have more precise definitions of building types, such as commercial accommodation use, residential use, shop use or industry use.

Current provisions

Energy efficiency provisions of the BCA

• General
• Specific requirements of the BCA provisions

General

Energy provisions for Class 5-9 buildings were incorporated into the BCA in 2006. When implemented, the provisions are designed to assist buildings and their associated services to use energy more efficiently and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, whilst the objective is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, it is energy use that is actually measured.

The BCA energy provisions are minimum criteria, and are described in Section J (ABCB, 2007). In addition, Part I2 (ABCB, 2007) describes requirements for the maintenance of energy efficiency installations. Compliance with Section J can be achieved by meeting the performance requirement, either by using a verification method or by applying the 'deemed-to-satisfy' provisions.

The verification method described in Section J (ABCB, 2007) allows the performance of a building and its services to be assessed by a thermal calculation method. Generally, the thermal calculation method is carried out using computational modelling. The minimum criteria for modelling are set out in the protocol for building energy analysis software (ABCB, 2006a). When Class 5-9 buildings are modelled, as part of the verification method, the thermal performance of the building shell alone (opaque building fabric, roof lights and glazing) is first assessed against minimum thermal performance criteria. Next, the combination of the building shell and the proposed air-conditioning, ventilation and lighting services is modelled and assessed against the same minimum performance criteria.

The verification method described in the BCA (ABCB, 2007) is suitable for modelling the performance of a Class 5 building (office), a Class 6 shopping centre, restaurant or café, a Class 8 laboratory, a Class 9a clinic, day surgery or procedure unit of a health building, a Class 9a theatre, cinema or school, and a Class 9c aged-care building.

The 'deemed-to-satisfy' provisions specify the minimum performance requirements for the building shell (opaque fabric, skylights and glazing), building sealing, air movement in naturally ventilated spaces, air-conditioning and ventilation systems, lighting, domestic hot water, and access for maintenance.

Specific requirements of the BCA provisions

The specific requirements of the BCA energy efficiency provisions are divided into sub-sections as follows:
 J1 - Building fabric: This sub-section includes requirements for insulation (with allowances for thermal mass and surface absorbance) of external walls, roof and floors, as well as the thermal performance of roof lights.
 J2 - External glazing: This sub-section covers the performance of each glazing element in the building shell and the extent of shading provided by an overhang over the element.  The glazing element is defined in the BCA as the window glass and frame. The performance provisions are limited to the overall heat transfer coefficient (U-value) and the solar heat gain factor (SHGF) of the glazing element, with allowance for shading by an overhang.
 J3 - Building sealing: This sub-section sets out sealing requirements for roof lights, external windows and doors, exhaust fans, construction of roofs, walls and floors, and of evaporative coolers.
 J4 - Air movement: This sub-section describes the minimum requirements for those spaces that are naturally ventilated, and only applies to Class 1 and 2 buildings.
 J5 - Air-conditioning and ventilation systems: This sub-section covers the performance of air-conditioning and ventilation systems, as well as the performance of equipment such as fans, chillers, boilers and large packaged air-conditioners. In particular, the amount of exhaust ventilation or outside air ventilation for air-conditioned spaces is limited to a maximum of 150% of that shown in the Australian standards referenced by the BCA. This limit is not applicable where it conflicts with OH&S requirements.
 J6 - Artificial lighting and power: This sub-section sets the maximum illumination power level for various functions of use within buildings (e.g. office spaces, retail spaces etc.)  The illumination power level is defined as the total power of the lamps, ballasts, current regulators and control regulators in a space, but does not include lighting plugged into general purpose electrical wall sockets.  Allowances are made for automatic dimming systems and daylight sensors. There are requirements for areas of lighting that can be controlled by a single light switch, time-clock and occupant sensor controls, and switches for areas that are adjacent to windows, external lighting, and decorative and display lighting.
 J7 - Hot water supply: This sub-section requires that hot water supply systems for food preparation or sanitary purposes be designed and installed in accordance with AS/NZS 3500.4 (SA, 2003).
 J8 - Access for maintenance: This sub-section requires that access be provided for maintenance of plant, equipment and components, so that they perform to a standard no less than they were originally required to achieve.

Existing building provisions

Although not stated in the BCA (because it is considered to be an administrative issue), most states and territories have a requirement to bring existing buildings into full compliance with the current BCA, in situations where proposed alterations and extensions constitute 50% of the volume of the building. This is generally known as the 50% rule, and includes all alterations made in the previous three years. The purpose of the 50% rule is to prevent old buildings from falling too far behind current BCA requirements. This requirement is particularly challenging when applied to energy efficiency provisions for commercial buildings.

State and territory provisions

• New South Wales
• Victoria
• Queensland
• South Australia
• Western Australia
• Tasmania
• Northern Territory
• Australian Capital Territory

New South Wales

NSW legislation related to sustainability can be found in environmental planning legislation, such as the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979, Regulations 2000, Local Government Act 1993, and Waste Avoidance and Resource Recovery Act 2001. These documents can be found at http://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au (accessed 16 May 2007).

With regard to building regulations, NSW has adopted the BCA energy efficiency provisions for commercial buildings, and the existing building provisions are applicable with discretion of local governments.

With regard to water, NSW has its own code of practice for plumbing and drainage (CUPDR, 2006), which:

• regulates installation of tanks and equipment for rainwater harvesting
• references AS 3500.4 (SA, 2003)
• restricts flow of hot water supply in kitchens and for sanitary purposes (grey water treatment and diversion — this is currently only applicable to residential buildings).

NSW Government programs to improve water efficiency that are likely to impact on commercial buildings include:

• the National Water Efficiency Labelling and Standards scheme, which requires certain water-use appliances to display labels at the point-of-sale with performance and water efficiency information 
• the National Australian Built Environment Rating System (NABERS), which is an environmental performance-based rating tool for existing commercial office buildings (and homes).

Furthermore, in the Sydney and Cental Coast areas, there are other initiatives such as:

• the Water Savings Fund
• introducing a requirement for large water users in Sydney Water's area of operations to produce and implement water savings plans
• Sydney Water's 'Every Drop Counts' business program, which aims to achieve increased water efficiency in business and commercial premises.  

These programs are managed by the NSW Department of Environment and Climate Change (DECC) (formerly Department of Energy, Utilities and Sustainability). Details of these programs can be found at http://www.deus.nsw.gov.au(accessed 16th May 2007).

Victoria

In Victoria, key building-related legislation includes the Building Act 1993 and Building Regulations 2006. However, these contain no specific sustainability requirements. These pieces of legislation be found at http://www.buildingcommission.com.au (accessed 16 May 2007)

Victoria has adopted the BCA 2006 energy measures for commercial buildings and the existing building provisions are also applicable. The Victorian Government has also set minimum Green Star standards for its own property portfolio, as a major property owner and tenant. A number of local governments (including City of Melbourne) are using planning controls to set standards for commercial buildings.

Queensland

In Queensland, key building-related legislation includes the Integrated Planning Act 1997, the Building Act 1975 and Building Regulations 2006, which can be found at http://www.legislation.qld.gov.au (accessed 16 May 2007). The Queensland Development Code can be found at http://www.lgp.qld.gov.au/?id=247 (accessed 16 May 2007).

Queensland has also adopted the BCA energy efficiency provisions, as well as the Plumbing Code of Australia (PCA) for water provisions for commercial buildings. All grey water provisions in the Plumbing and Drainage Act 2002 and the Queensland Plumbing and Wastewater Code are NOT related to commercial buildings.

South Australia

In South Australia, key building-related legislation includes the Development Act 1993, the Environment Protection Act 1993 and Development Regulations 1993, all of which can be found at http://www.planning.sa.gov.au/go/building (accessed 16 May 2007). South Australia has adopted the BCA energy efficiency provisions and the Plumbing Code of Australia (PCA) for water provision for commercial buildings. Some local governments (including Adelaide City Council) are using planning controls to set standards for commercial buildings.

Western Australia

In Western Australia, key building-related legislation includes the Local Government (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1960 and Building Regulations 1989, which can be found at http://www.dhw.wa.gov.au (accessed 16 May 2007). Western Australia has also adopted the BCA energy efficiency provisions for commercial buildings.

Tasmania

In Tasmania, key building-related legislation includes the Building Act 2000 and Building Regulations 2004, which can be found at http://www.wst.tas.gov.au/building (accessed 16 May 2007). Tasmania has also adopted the BCA energy efficiency provisions and the Plumbing Code of Australia (PCA) for water provision for commercial buildings.

Northern Territory

In the Northern Territory, key building-related legislation includes the Building Act 1993 and Building Regulations 1993, which can be found at http://www.ipe.nt.gov.au/whatwedo/building (accessed 16 May 2007). The Northern Territory has also adopted the BCA energy efficiency provisions for commercial buildings.

Australian Capital Territory

In the ACT, key building-related legislation includes the Building Act 2004, the Land (Planning and Environment) Act 1991 and the Water and Sewerage Act 2000, which can be found at http://www.legislation.act.gov.au (accessed 16 May 2007).

The ACT has adopted the BCA energy efficiency provisions for commercial buildings and the PCA for water provisions, as well as the following pre-PCA mandatory requirements under the Water and Sewerage Act 2000:

• maximum water pressure to internal plumbing fixtures and fitters (but excluding appliances requiring high pressure) when providing new water supply services
• maximum water flows to certain outlets when installing outlets
• dual flush cisterns and maximum cistern capacities to new installations.

The ACT has also amended sanitary drainage and plumbing laws to facilitate the re-use of grey water diverters and grey water irrigation hoses.

Other sustainability-related requirements include:

• A demolition plan must be submitted along with building plans, showing where materials will be recycled where applicable.
• Existing building provisions apply to all buildings, including energy provisions, with no concessions for commercial buildings.
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Future prospects

Future prospects for specific issues

• Operating energy efficiency
• Water efficiency
• Material usage
• Indoor environment
• Sustainability rating tools
• Standards

Operating energy efficiency

The framework for regulating operating energy efficiency is already in place, so it is not technically difficult to increase the level of stringency, particularly for commercial buildings; indeed, Regulatory Impact Statement 2006-2 (ABCB, 2006b) indicates that there is considerable scope to do this. Mandatory annual declaration of energy consumption is feasible, although perhaps under regulations other than the BCA.

Water efficiency

The AGO recently sponsored a scoping study to investigate measures for improving the water efficiency of buildings (GHD Pty Ltd, 2006). The study recommends the development of water efficiency requirements and rainwater harvesting for new buildings and major renovations, similar to the energy provisions of the BCA. Regulations related to system design for recycled water could be placed in the BCA, while regulations regarding the installation of water-saving devices may be better implemented through the PCA. Mandatory annual declaration of water consumption is also feasible, although perhaps through other legislation.

Material usage

The AGO has also sponsored a scoping study to investigate measures for improving the environmental sustainability of building materials (RMIT, 2006). The study recommends a review of existing regulatory mechanisms, especially the BCA, in order to identify potential for:

• the integration of standards for assessing sustainability of materials
• establishing requirements for recycled content in appropriate products
• the restriction or phase-out of hazardous substances
• establishing requirements on the recyclability of materials and assemblages.

Indoor environment

Requirements for indoor environment already exist in the BCA under the 'amenity' provisions. At present, some of these requirements are quantified, while others are not. Improvements in terms of better clarification or quantification of the requirements, and better procedures for demonstrating compliance, can be expected in future amendments to the BCA.

Sustainability rating tools

As the objective of some sustainability measures is the reduction of greenhouse gases, a greenhouse rating scheme could be an effective tool to deliver this outcome. Some states and territories have expressed a wish to see such tools referenced in the BCA. Currently, only energy efficiency rating schemes are referenced in the regulations.

Standards

Standards are not regulatory requirements unless they are specifically referenced in a regulatory document. However, standards do give an indication of possible regulatory approaches to the above issues. Standards Australia has established a sustainable building committee — SB 000 — that is currently developing a range of standards as a participating member in the International Standards Organization (ISO). The figure below shows the framework for these standards, used to consider environmental, social and economic aspects of sustainability (ISO, 2006). ISO materials can be accessed at http://www.saiglobal.com/online/autologin.asp (accessed 21 May 2007).

Future prospects for states and territories

• General
• New South Wales
• Victoria
• Queensland
• South Australia
• Western Australia
• Tasmania
• Northern Territory
• Australian Capital Territory

General

It is likely that Australian states and territories will adopt any future sustainability measures that are introduced to the Building Code of Australia (BCA). In addition, there is an increasing tendency amongst government agencies to use Green Star or NABERS to set environmental standards for buildings in their own property portfolios. A number of local governments (including those in capital cities) are also using planning controls to set environmental standards for buildings.

New South Wales

NSW Government policy is to limit greenhouse emissions and impacts of climate change. Their proposed measures include assistance to the private sector with recycling, stormwater harvesting, and the installation of solar and gas hot water systems, energy-efficient insulation and rainwater tanks. Details of the NSW Government policies can be found at http://www.greenhouse.nsw.gov.au (accessed 18 May 2007).

Victoria

The Victorian Government sustainability policy can be found in Our environment, our future, which was released in July 2006 and is available at http://www.dse.vic.gov.au (accessed 18 May 2007). However, to date, no specific policy commitment has been made.

Queensland

There is no firm proposal at this stage for further regulation of sustainability in commercial buildings.

South Australia

The South Australian Government has introduced into parliament the Climate Change and Greenhouse Emissions Reduction Bill 2006, which mandates the reductions in greenhouse gas emissions to be achieved by the State within certain timeframes. How this legislation will impact on commercial buildings is yet to be determined; however, issues that are being investigated include:

• the use of some form of rating tool
• requirements for improving the sustainability of existing building stock.

Western Australia

The Western Australian Government has had a sustainability strategy since 2004 (http://www.sustainability.dpc.wa.gov.au, accessed 18 May 2007) and is in the process of developing a new building Act. However, at this stage, there is no firm proposal with regard to the sustainability of commercial buildings.

Tasmania

There is no firm proposal at this stage for further regulation of sustainability in commercial buildings

Northern Territory

There is no firm proposal at this stage for further regulation of sustainability in commercial buildings

Australian Capital Territory

The ACT Government plans to replace the Land (Planning and Environment) Act 1991 with the
Planning and Development Bill 2006 (if the bill is passed, it is expected to become the Planning and Development Act 2007).

The Building Act 2004 includes provision for the development of a 'sustainability guideline' (yet to be written), which requires that builders do not use materials in contravention of the guideline. The sustainability guideline is a disallowable instrument (i.e. it must be notified and presented to the legislative assembly under the Legislation Act 2001).

The ACT also plans to monitor the application of the BCA energy provisions to existing building work for efficacy and practicality.

Sustainability-based issues are being examined at the policy officer level to inform government. To date, no firm future legislative proposals have been made.

Links

Green Star
NABERS

References

Australian Building Codes Board (2004a), 'Energy efficiency measures for Class 5-9 buildings' in Building Code of Australia: Volume One, regulatory proposal (Regulation Document RD2004-01), Attachment D, Canberra: ABCB, D1-D4.

Australian Building Codes Board (2004b), Media release 23 June, Ref. 04/169, Accessed 16 May, 2007, from
http://www.abcb.gov.au/index.cfm?fuseaction=Publications.

Australian Building Codes Board (2006a), Protocol for building energy analysis software: Version 2006.1, Accessed 16 May, 2007, from
http://www.abcb.gov.au/index.cfm?fuseaction=Publications.

Australian Building Codes Board (2006b), Proposal to amend the Building Code of Australia to include energy efficiency requirements for Class 5 to 9 buildings, (Regulatory Impact Statement 2006-2), Accessed 16 May, 2007, from
http://www.abcb.gov.au/index.cfm?fuseaction=Publications.

Australian Building Codes Board (2007), Building Code of Australia 2007 (Volume one & Volume two), Accessed 16 May, 2007, from
http://www.abcb.gov.au/index.cfm?fuseaction=Publications.

Australian Greenhouse Office (2006), Energy efficiency in government operations (EEGO) policy, Canberra: Department of the Environment and Water Resources.

Council of Australian Governments (1997), Principles and guidelines for national standard setting and regulatory action by ministerial councils and standard-setting bodies, Canberra: COAG.

Committee on Uniformity of Plumbing and Drainage Regulation in NSW (2006), NSW code of practice for plumbing and drainage (3rd ed.), Sydney: Department of Energy, Utilities and Sustainability.

Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources (2002), A 'best practice' framework for considering business regulation, Canberra: DITR.

GHD Pty Ltd (2006), Scoping study to investigate measures for improving the water efficiency of buildings, Canberra: Australian Greenhouse Office.

International Standards Organization (2006), ISO/TS21931-1:2006: Sustainability in building construction - Framework for methods of assessment for environmental performance of construction works - Part 1: Buildings, Switzerland: ISO

National Plumbing Regulators Forum (2004), Plumbing Code of Australia publication, draft 2, Canberra: NPRF.

Office of Regulation Review (1998), A guide to regulation (2nd ed.), Canberra: AusInfo, Accessed 16 May, 2007, from http://www.pc.gov.au/publications/.

Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (2006), Scoping study to investigate measures for improving the environmental sustainability of building materials, Canberra: Australian Greenhouse Office.

Standards Australia (2003), AS/NZS 3500: National plumbing and drainage, Sydney: SA.