Regulatory requirements, measures and assessments methods and tools for energy efficiency in commercial buildings

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This article provides details on the regulatory requirements for energy efficiency in commercial buildings, the methods for measuring and assessing HVAC, lighting and appliance efficiency and tools for modelling, building management and reporting.

Policies, regulations and standards

• Energy policies
  • What current energy policies exist?
  • Energy efficiency opportunities (EEO)
• Energy regulations
  • What current energy regulations exist?
  • What is driving energy regulation development?

Energy policies

What current energy policies exist?

Climate change is inextricably linked with energy issues. Australia's energy sector greenhouse gas emissions increased by 34% between 1990 and 2004, and accounted for 69% of Australia's net national greenhouse gas emissions in 2004. While the availability of abundant and cheap energy has provided Australia with a competitive advantage, improving the sustainability of these sources is fundamental to Australia's continued prosperity (Council of Australian Governments, 2006).

Australian government agencies have put in place a range of greenhouse and energy programs. Some of these are designed primarily to deliver information and data to meet international obligations and to underpin development of government policies and programs. For example, the Fuel and electricity survey is the primary vehicle for collecting energy consumption data to underpin national energy policy analysis, as well as to meet Australia's reporting obligations to a range of international bodies, including the International Energy Agency.

Other programs are designed to encourage action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions or to encourage sustainable, efficient and environmentally responsible use of our energy resources.

The table below lists current voluntary and mandatory programs with greenhouse and/or energy reporting needs, and the year of commencement for each of the programs. Some of these programs require additional information to be reported, such as emission reduction actions.

Because they evolved separately, many of the existing reporting requirements have unique characteristics, including reporting formats, methodologies and definitions. There has been some standardisation of reporting methodologies; for example, the widespread use of the AGO factors and methods workbook and the adoption of WBCSD/WRI GHG protocol.

However, important differences remain in the reporting requirements of existing programs that will not be removed without political will across all jurisdictions. Differences remain with respect to:

• emission source categories covered — most reporting programs cover on-site fuel combustion and the off-site emissions associated with purchased electricity, but there are differences in the treatment of on-site fugitive and industrial process emissions and off-site transport
• fuels covered — most programs cover only the main fuels, such as coal, natural gas and the common transport fuels. Others include all fossil fuels, or all energy forms including renewable fuels
• greenhouse gases covered and modes of reporting — some programs cover carbon dioxide only, while others cover all six Kyoto Protocol gases expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent (CO₂-e), or all gases expressed as a single CO₂-e value etc.
• the emission factors used to derive emissions from energy used, their source, whether they correspond to 'Scope 1, 2 or 3' as defined by the WBCSD (2005), and the rules for non-standard factors etc.
• the treatment of offsets, such as carbon take-up by forestry activities — some schemes do not recognise offsets at all, some permit them to be separately reported and some permit them to be netted from total emissions
• reporting periods — reporting periods of programs vary between whole calendar year, financial year and six-month periods. Frequency of reporting (annual or other) also varies
• constraints on passing on data to third parties.

These factors are not left to the discretion of reporting entities, but are fully detailed in the reporting forms and accompanying guidelines and manuals prepared by the respective data requiring agencies.

While some of the differences may appear minor, in effect they mean that a report prepared by a reporting entity for one agency may not be accepted by any other agency. Even those agencies with lesser or simpler data needs specify data requirements in particular formats, so entities participating in more than program must repackage the data for each.

Energy efficiency opportunities (EEO)

The majority of existing mandatory reporting requirements will not affect most commercial businesses, as they are aimed at very large energy users and industrial operations that produce emissions. However, the Australian Government (Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources) has introduced a new program to encourage large energy-using businesses to improve their energy efficiency and to implement continuous improvement programs to manage energy. The energy efficiency opportunities (EEO) program commenced in July 2006 and affects all corporations using more than 0.5 PJ (peta-joules) of energy annually. Typically, this equates to an annual energy bill of more than:

• $1.5 million for gas
• $5 million for electricity
• $11 million for diesel fuel
• or any combination of the above >0.5 PJ.

As the program applies to total energy use of the top corporate entities nationally, it will involve not only large industrial sites, but also many commercial businesses with large numbers of smaller facilities. The program is expected to have an impact on up to 250 corporations across Australia (Department of Industry, Tourism & Resources, 2006).

EEO requires the top corporate entities to report on energy efficiency opportunities for all facilities individually using more than 0.5 PJ of energy annually. Reporting must cover 80% of total energy use across the entity. It is important to note that EEO also includes the energy used by transport.

EEO requires that technical energy savings assessments are conducted, and that a continuous improvement process is implemented and evidence of this is thoroughly documented by companies. Specifically, companies are required to report on six elements of management policy, practices and procedures.

Participants in the program are required to assess their energy use and report publicly on the results of the assessment and the business response. Decisions on energy efficiency opportunities remain at the discretion of the business.

The program's assessment framework takes a whole-of-business approach to assessing energy use and energy saving opportunities. The framework involves corporations looking at the many factors influencing energy use (including leadership, management and policy), the accuracy and quality of data and analysis, the skills and perspectives of a wide range of people, decision making, and communicating outcomes. Participants are expected to meet minimum requirements in each of these areas.

Corporations must report publicly on the results of their energy efficiency assessments and the opportunities that exist for projects with a financial payback of up to four years. The focus is on the energy saving opportunities identified in the assessment and the business response to those opportunities.

Links:
Council of Australian Governments (COAG)
Energy efficiency opportunities (EEO)

Energy regulations

What current energy regulations exist?

On May 1, 2006, mandatory energy efficiency measures were introduced to the Building Code of Australia (BCA) for Class 5-9 buildings. The aim of this implementation is to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Existing buildings
Regulation 608 applies to alterations to an existing building and requires that building work to alter an existing building must comply with the regulations. There is also a threshold measure, whereby the remainder of the existing building must comply with the regulations if the proposed alterations, together with any other alterations completed or permitted within the previous three years, represent more than half the original volume of the building.

Regulation 608 also provides that the relevant building surveyor (RBS) has discretionary power to consent to partial compliance with the regulations, but must take into account:

• the structural adequacy of the building
• the requirements necessary to make reasonable provision for:
  • the amenity of the building and the safety and health of people using the building
  • avoiding the spread of fire to or from any adjoining building.

The discretionary power does not apply in some situations. If the alteration is an extension, the RBS may only consent to partial compliance in respect to the extension if the floor area of the extension is not greater than the lesser of: 

• 25% of the floor area of the existing building
• 1,000 m².

Section 28 of the Building Act 1993 and Regulations 502, 503, 609 and 1011 also provide the RBS with discretionary powers. In some instances, there are slight variations in relation to the matters that need to be considered when the RBS determines whether to permit partial compliance (Building Commission Victoria, 2006a).

HVAC
Part J5 of the BCA 2005 Volume 1 contains requirements for the design and installation of air-conditioning and ventilation systems, and is intended to ensure that these systems are designed so that they can be used in a responsible manner and to prevent excessive energy usage patterns. 
In general, the new energy provisions require the following:

• HVAC systems must have the ability to only operate the air-conditioning, ventilation or exhaust systems of a building or part of a building when needed.
• Systems must limit outside air except when providing free cooling, when a heat reclaiming system is installed, or when there is a process or health need.
• Outside air to theatres and the like must be varied depending on the number of occupants, other than when a heat reclaiming system is installed.
• Outside air to car parks is to be varied depending on the contaminant level.
• Systems must limit the power used by the fans of air-conditioning and ventilation systems and heat rejection plant.
• There must be time switches on air-conditioning and ventilation systems.
• Systems must limit the power used by the pumps of heating, cooling and heat rejection plant.
• There must be insulation on air-conditioning ductwork and heating and cooling piping.
• Minimum performance levels must be set for boilers, chillers and package air-conditioning plant not covered by minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) (ARIAH, 2006).

Lighting
The energy efficiency provisions contained in Part J6 for Class 5-9 buildings are more detailed than the provisions included in the BCA2005 for Class 2-4 buildings. The new provisions include:

• requirements for individual and accessible control of lighting
• a limit on the area served by a switch or control device
• limitations on the power used within a building by lighting systems. This limit is based on the levels for different tasks recommended in the occupational health and safety standard AS/NZS 1680 Interior lighting and has concessions for rooms that are small or where there are lighting control devices
• requirements for separate control and time clocks for display and external lighting
• requirements for time clock controls for boiling water and chilled water storage units (ARIAH, 2006).

What is driving energy regulation development?

Reduction in greenhouse gas emissions is the main driving force behind the new BCA 2006 energy efficiency provisions. The energy efficiency measures will result in commercial and public buildings that have greater levels of comfort and reduced reliance on artificial heating and cooling. Within the first year of operation, the anticipated environmental benefits of more energy-efficient buildings will include annual savings of around 300,000 tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions. This is equivalent to removing around 70,000 cars from our roads or planting 450,000 trees every year.

Within ten years, energy-efficient commercial and public buildings will save Australians over 18 million tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions.

There are also significant non-environmental benefits, including financial savings associated with reduced energy use and the reduced size of the air-conditioning plant required for more energy-efficient buildings. Under the new energy measures, the average three-storey office building could save more than $7,300 in energy costs every year (Australian Building Codes Board, 2006).

Links:
Australian Building Codes Board (ABCB)
Building Commission (Victoria)

Measures and assessments

• HVAC efficiency
  • Types of systems
• Lighting efficiency
  • Incandescent lamps
  • Fluorescent lamps
  • Compact fluorescent lamps
  • High-intensity discharge lamps
  • Solid-state lighting
  • Ballasts
  • Luminaires, fixtures and troffers
  • Diffusers
• Appliance efficiency
  • Energy Star
  • Office equipment
  • Food service equipment

HVAC efficiency

Air-conditioning accounts for around half of the total energy use of a normal office building. It provides fresh air into spaces that don't have access to opening windows, and heats and cools the building to provide a comfortable environment.

The shape and use of modern office buildings tends to dictate the need for air-conditioning for two primary reasons:

1. Modern buildings are deep-plan, meaning that the middle of the building has to be supplied with fresh air mechanically.
2. Lighting and office equipment produce a lot of heat, which needs to be counteracted to maintain comfortable conditions.

In most offices, the air-conditioning system is programmed to maintain the temperature within a few degrees of 22 °C. This corresponds to what is generally accepted to be a 'comfortable' temperature, although the reality is that it's practically impossible to keep everyone happy all the time. Interestingly, in naturally ventilated buildings where they feel they have more control over their environment, people seem to accept a broader range of temperatures than they would in a sealed-up, air-conditioned building (Australian Greenhouse Office, 2005).

To supply conditioned air to a single room, air-conditioning tasks are all performed by a single packaged unit. In larger and more complex air-conditioning applications, the tasks are usually in separate locations, linked by piping and ducting and coordinated by a control system. The basic equipment in a simple, air-cooled, direct expansion (DX) room air-conditioning system includes:

• compressor
• condenser coil
• evaporator coil
• refrigerant pipes
• air filter
• fans and motors
• ducting and vents.

Types of systems

There are many different types of air-conditioning systems, which can be grouped into the following categories:

• Centralised ducted air systems: These are systems in which the primary movement of heat around the building is via heated and cooled air. These systems are the most common in large office buildings.
• Centralised fluid-based systems: These are systems in which a fluid — typically water but possibly refrigerant — is used to move heat around the building. These systems are fairly common in office buildings.
• Decentralised systems: These are systems in which heating and cooling is conducted locally, with little or no bulk movement of heat around the building. These systems are relatively common in small offices (Australian Greenhouse Office, 2005).

Centralised ducted air systems

Centralised ducted air systems are the dominant air-conditioning type for larger buildings. The left figure indicates the main components of a typical centralised ducted air system.

In this air-based system, fresh air is drawn into the building through the intake louvre, mixed with return air, heated or cooled to a controlled temperature, circulated around the building and provided to the occupied space. Local temperature control is provided by a terminal reheat unit attached to a temperature controller within the occupied space. Exhaust air is extracted from the space and dumped to the outside. In general, the majority of the return air is recycled via the return air duct (Australian Greenhouse Office, 2005).

The individual components of this system include:

• intake louvres — these are the external louvres through which supply air is drawn into the building
• filters — these are used to remove particles of dust or dirt from the supply air
• heating coils — these heat up the incoming airstream using coils (through which hot water is passed) or banks of electric heating elements
• cooling coils — these cool the incoming airstream using coils through which refrigerant or water is passed
• supply fans — these are used to circulate the air through the network of ductwork
• terminal reheat heating coils — these use hot water coils or electric heating elements to heat up the air being supplied to one part of the building according to the temperature in that space
• supply and extract grilles — these are the points at which the air is either supplied into or extracted from the space, and may be ceiling-mounted or wall-mounted. They area lso called diffusers or registers
• extract fans — these are used to extract the air from the space and discharge it to the outside
• return air duct — these are interconnections between inlet and outlet ductwork sections, which let a controlled amount of air recirculate around the air-conditioning system when full fresh air is not required
• exhaust louvres — these are the external louvres through which extract air is discharged from the building.

There are three major types of centralised ducted air systems: constant volume systems, dual duct systems and variable volume systems.

1. Constant volume systems

These are simple and common forms of air-conditioning. Air is drawn from outside, is filtered, and is then heated or cooled as required. A supply fan then distributes the air through a ductwork network to supply grilles in the space. Air is drawn from the space via extract grilles. The air is then recycled via the return air duct or discharged to the outside through external discharge louvres (Australian Greenhouse Office, 2005).

The key energy-saving areas for constant volume systems include:

• the improvement of primary supply air temperature control, to reduce simultaneous heating and cooling
• the adjustment of economy cycle operation, to ensure maximum gains are made from the use of fresh air for 'free' cooling
• regular maintenance, including thermostat calibration and rebalancing to ensure that each space has the right amount of air flow.

2. Dual duct systems

Dual duct all-air systems use two ducts, the first supplying warm air and the second supplying cold air. Air is mixed at the terminal serving the individual space, so that supply air of the desired temperature is delivered to the space. Dual duct systems are uncommon in new buildings, but were commonly used 15 years ago (Australian Greenhouse Office, 2005).

The key energy-saving areas for dual duct systems include:

• the improvement of supply air temperature control, to reduce simultaneous heating and cooling.
  *the improvement and maintenance of mixing box operation
• the adjustment of economy cycle operation, to ensure maximum gains are made from the use of fresh air for 'free' cooling. This can be quite complex for a dual duct system
• regular maintenance, including thermostat calibration and rebalancing to ensure that each space has the right amount of air flow.

3. Variable volume systems

Variable air volume (VAV) systems use variable volume terminal units, which regulate the quantity of air supplied to the occupied space according to the temperature within the space. If more cooling is required, more cold air is introduced into the space. In the best implementation of these systems, the central air handling unit fan speed is controlled to maintain a constant duct pressure. An interlock is arranged between the supply and extract fans. Variable air volume systems are very common in larger office buildings (Australian Greenhouse Office, 2005).

The key energy-saving areas for variable volume systems include:

• the maintenance and calibration of variable volume boxes
• the use of variable speed drives for fans, instead of other less efficient methods of adjusting air flow
• the adjustment of economy cycle operation to ensure maximum gains are made from the use of fresh air for 'free' cooling. This has to be coordinated with some care in a variable volume system
• regular maintenance, including thermostat calibration and rebalancing to ensure that each space has the right amount of air flow. Synchronisation of supply and return fans is also essential to maintaining good balance in variable volume system operation.

Centralised fluid-based systems
Centralised fluid-based systems come in a variety of radically different forms (Australian Greenhouse Office, 2005).

Key types of fluid-based systems include:

• Fan-coil systems: In a fan-coil system, hot and cold water is piped around the building to individual fan-coil units, which then provide conditioning to individual spaces or groups of spaces.
• Hydronic systems: In a hydronic system, water is circulated around the building to individual heat pumps. When heating, the heat pumps draw heat from the water. When cooling, they reject heat into the water.
• Variable refrigerant volume (VRV) systems: In a VRV system, refrigerant runs around the building to individual fan-coils that can provide heating or cooling as required.

The key energy-efficiency opportunities with fluid-based systems include:

• thermostat calibration — thermostats need to be calibrated properly to avoid energy waste
• filter maintenance — poorly maintained filters on fan-coils lead to major performance problems.

Decentralised systems
In smaller buildings, it can be cheaper to just heat or cool locally using small, decentralised air-conditioning systems (Australian Greenhouse Office, 2005).

While decentralised systems can be used very effectively and with great efficiency, they are often used in an unplanned manner, leading to significant control and efficiency problems. Widespread use of local systems in a large building, for instance, is generally an indicator of ad-hoc air-conditioning.

Decentralised systems can also be used as after-hours support for centralised systems, allowing specific areas to be air-conditioned without requiring the operation of central plant.

The major types of decentralised systems are:

• split systems
• evaporative coolers
• window units.

Links:
Australian Institute of Refrigeration Air Conditioning and Heating
Innovative HVAC program

Lighting efficiency

When comparing lamps, it's important to understand the following performance characteristics:  

• Colour rendering index (CRI): This is a measurement of a light source's accuracy in rendering different colours, when compared to a reference light source with the same correlated colour temperature. The highest attainable CRI is 100. Lamps with CRIs above 70 are typically used in office and living environments.
• Correlated colour temperature (CCT): This is a measurement on the Kelvin (K) scale that indicates the warmth or coolness of a lamp's colour appearance. The higher the colour temperature, the cooler the colour appearance. Typically, a CCT rating below 3,200 K is considered warm, while a rating above 4,000 K is considered cool.
• Efficacy: This refers to the ratio of light output (lumens) to input power (watts). The higher the efficacy, the more efficient the lamp (US Department of Energy, 2004). 

It is important to use the most efficient lamp possible while maintaining the proper colour-rendering qualities required by a specific lighting application.  

Lamp types include:

• incandescent lamps
• fluorescent lamps
• compact fluorescent lamps
• high-intensity discharge lamps
• solid-state lighting

Incandescent lamps

A standard incandescent lamp consists of a fairly large, thin, frosted glass envelope. Inside the glass is an inert gas, such as argon and/or nitrogen. At the centre of the lamp is a tungsten filament. Electricity heats the filament and the heated tungsten emits visible light in a process called incandescence (US Department of Energy, 2006).

Most standard light bulbs are incandescent lamps. They have a CRI of 100 and CCTs between 2,600 and 3,000, making them attractive lighting sources for many applications. However, these bulbs are typically inefficient, converting only about 5% of the energy into light, and transforming the rest into heat.

Another type of incandescent lamp is the halogen lamp. Halogen lamps also have a CRI of 100 and are only slightly more energy-efficient than standard incandescent lamps, converting about 10% of the energy into light. However, they do maintain their light output over time.

A halogen lamp also uses a tungsten filament. However, the filament is encased inside a much smaller quartz envelope and the gas inside the envelope is from the halogen group. If the temperature is high enough, the halogen gas will combine with tungsten atoms as they evaporate and redeposit them on the filament. This recycling process lets the filament last a lot longer. In addition, it's now possible to run the filament hotter, producing more light per unit of energy. As the quartz envelope is so close to the filament, it becomes about four times hotter than a standard incandescent lamp (US Department of Energy, 2006).

Fluorescent lamps

A fluorescent lamp consists of a sealed glass tube. The tube contains a small amount of mercury and an inert gas, like argon, kept under very low pressure. In these electric-discharge lamps, a fluorescing coating on the glass, called phosphor powder, transforms some of the ultraviolet energy generated into light. Fluorescent lamps also require a ballast to start and maintain their operation.

Early fluorescent lamps were sometimes criticised as not producing enough warm colours, making them appear too white or uncomplimentary to skin tones. A cool white fluorescent lamp has a CRI of 62. However, today there are fluorescent lamps available with CRIs of 80 and above that simulate natural daylighting and incandescent light. Fluorescent lamps are also available in a variety of CCTs, from 2,900 to 7,000 (US Department of Energy, 2006).

The 'T' designation for fluorescent lamps stands for tubular — the shape of the lamp. The number after the 'T' refers to the diameter of the tube (in eighths of an inch). As fluorescent technology has advanced, the lamps have become smaller in diameter. The 38 mm lamp (known as a T12 lamp) was superseded 20 years ago by the 26 mm lamp (known as a T8 lamp), which requires 10% less power to produce the same light output. Phosphors have also improved, with the latest version of the triphosphor lamp producing 50% more light at the end of its life than the cool white monophosphor lamp it replaced. The light now produced by fluorescent lamps is also of considerably better quality. New buildings have recently begun installing 16 mm lamps (known as T5 lamps), which provide even greater efficiency (Australian Greenhouse Office, 2005).

The wattage rating of 38 mm and 26 mm fluorescent lamps is uniquely determined by their size, as shown in the table below.

Wattage rating of 38 mm and 26 mm fluorescent lamps

Lamp type	Power (watts)	Including ballast (watts)
600 mm x 38 mm	20	26
600 mm x 26 mm	18	24
550 mm x 16 mm	14	17
850 mm x 16 mm	21	24
1,200 mm x 38 mm	40	46
1,200 mm x 26 mm	36	42
1,150 mm x 16 mm	28	31
1,500 mm x 38 mm	65	74
1,500 mm x 26 mm	58	67
1,450 mm x 16 mm	35	39

If a high frequency (electronic) ballast is used, the tube power is reduced for the same light output because the tube runs more efficiently. The total power including ballast losses is approximately the same as the lamp power alone with a conventional ballast. T5 lamps run exclusively on electronic ballasts and are gradually penetrating the new building market. However, they are not interchangeable with 38 mm and 26 mm lamps, so their use in retrofit applications is limited.

Linear fluorescent lamps manufactured in, or imported into, Australia must comply with minimum energy performance (MEPS) requirements, which are set out in AS/NZS 4782.2-2004. The scope of linear fluorescent lamps MEPS covers FD and FDH lamps, ranging from 550 mm to 1,500 mm in length (inclusive) and having a nominal lamp power of 16 watts or more. The intention of MEPS is to improve end-use energy efficiency by eliminating lower efficiency fluorescent lamps from the market and encouraging the sale and purchase of higher efficiency fluorescent lamps.

The MEPS for linear fluorescent lamps in AS/NZS 4782.2-2004 are set out as minimum luminous efficacy in lumens per watt for various lamp sizes. There are also requirements for minimum colour rendering index ratings (Energyrating, 2006).

The main methods for saving energy with fluorescent fittings (in approximate order of cost-effectiveness) are:

• Reduce light levels where these exceed the requirements of the relevant standard.
• Turn the lamps off when they are not needed.
• Upgrade the lamps to better units.
• Refurbish the fittings to improve efficiency.
• Replace the fittings to improve efficiency.
• Add in control systems to automatically turn off lights, on the basis of daylight levels or occupancy.

Compact fluorescent lamps

Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) are small-diameter fluorescent lamps, folded for compactness. There are several styles of CFLs: two-, four-, and six-tube lamps, as well as circular lamps. Some CFLs have the tubes and ballasts permanently connected. Others have separate tubes and ballasts.

Some CFLs feature a round adaptor, allowing them to screw into common electrical sockets and making them ideal replacements for incandescent lamps. CFLs last up to ten times longer than incandescent lamps and use about one-fourth of the energy, producing 90% less heat.

However, standard CFLs are longer than typical 60-100 watt incandescent lamps and consequently do not often fit neatly into existing fittings. Therefore, sub-CFLs have been developed that fit into most incandescent fixtures (US Department of Energy, 2006).

High-intensity discharge lamps

Source: Australian Greenhouse Office, 2005

High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps are generally used in applications such as the lighting of warehouses, storage yards, sports areas and street lighting.

All HID lamps operate on the principle of an electrical discharge occurring in a closed glass or silica tube containing small quantities of metals that vaporise as an electrical current is passed through the tube. The arc tube, as it is known, is enclosed in an outer glass envelope, forming the lamp.

Two types of HID lamp are in general use, one containing small quantities of mercury (sometimes with traces of other metals forming the metal halide series of lamps) and the other containing small quantities of sodium. Unlike fluorescent lamps, which operate at low pressure and require the addition of phosphors to make the UV light formed in the arc visible, HID lamps operate at higher pressures and the arc formed emits light in the visible spectrum. The quality or colour of the light is sometimes improved by the addition of phosphors on the inside of the outer glass envelope.

Like fluorescent lamps, HID lamps require a ballast to control the electric current in the arc tube. Some types require a separate igniter, which is a source of high voltage used to pulse the arc tube, allowing the arc to strike. Characteristically, these lamps flicker at the start and sometimes require up to ten minutes to reach their full light output as the full quantity of metal vaporises in the arc tube. Ballast losses vary between different types of lamps and different wattages, but are generally around 8%-15 % for the larger wattages and up to 30% for lamps under 150 W.

There are three basic types of HID lamp: mercury vapour lamps, metal halide lamps and sodium lamps.

1. Mercury vapour lamps: Mercury vapour lamps were developed in the 1930s and have provided a reliable light source since that time. Their efficiency does not compare with more modern lamps, yet they remain in wide service in street lighting and general applications, such as warehouses (where colour is not important) and sports area lighting. Mercury vapour lamps have a bluish light that is good for night vision. However, they are not particularly efficient and do not provide a good rendition of colours. Generally speaking, the light output of mercury vapour lamps will deteriorate significantly with age. This often necessitates over-design of the initial installation. Lamp life is typically 12,000 hours.

2. Metal halide lamps: Metal halide lamps were developed in the 1960s and are nearly twice as efficient as mercury vapour lamps. They give a white light, with a strong blue-green component. Early metal halide lamps were troubled with short life, rapid depreciation of light output, and a distinct colour shift with age, which is more important indoors than in street lighting applications. These shortcomings have been overcome with modern lamps and operating times of 20,000-30,000 hours are now quite common. The efficacy of metal halide lamps is generally better than mercury vapour lamps, but is not as good as low-pressure sodium lamps. The major benefit of metal halide lamps is their good colour rendering ability, due to their predominantly white light appearance. They are a suitable alternative for all types of road lighting, and indoors, where colour is important. With their vastly improved lamp life, they also provide a suitable alternative to mercury vapour lamps. For example, in retrofit applications, a 125 W mercury vapour lamp can be replaced with a 70 W or 100 W metal halide lamp with similar light output, resulting in energy savings.

3. Sodium lamps: Two types of sodium lamps are used in lighting: low pressure (monochromatic) lamps and high pressure lamps. The low pressure sodium lamp is the most efficient lamp available and has a long life. These lamps are generally located along major arterial roads and have a distinctive monochromatic yellow light. They are used when efficient lighting is the prime consideration and colour rendition is not required. Where colour rendering ability or appearance becomes more important, high pressure sodium lamps are an alternative to some mercury and metal halide lamps, particularly where a yellowish appearance in the emitted light is a desired or acceptable outcome.

The energy efficiency opportunities for HID lamps include:

• turning them off when not required
• replacing mercury vapour lamps with lower wattage metal halide lamps or, if colour rendition is less important, with sodium lamps
• providing stepped lighting levels or dimming in response to activity requirements or daylight levels.

Solid-state lighting

Source: US Department of Energy, 2006

Unlike incandescent and fluorescent lamps, solid-state lighting creates light without producing heat. A semi-conducting material converts electricity directly into light, which makes the light very energy-efficient. Solid-state lighting includes a variety of light producing semi-conductor devices, such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs).

Until recently, LEDs — which are basically tiny light bulbs that fit easily into an electrical circuit — were used as simple indicator lamps in electronics and toys. However, they can be as bright as incandescent lamps and the cost of semi-conductor material, which used to be quite expensive, has plummeted. Therefore, LEDs are now a more cost-effective lighting option.

Research shows that LEDs have great potential as energy-efficient lighting for residential and even commercial building use. New uses for LEDs include small area lighting (such as task lighting and under-shelf fixtures), decorative lighting, and pathway and step marking. As white LEDs become more powerful and effective, LEDs will be used in more general illumination applications, perhaps with entire walls and ceilings becoming the lighting system. LEDs are already being used successfully in many general illumination applications, including traffic signals and exit signs.

OLEDs are currently used in very thin, flat display screens, such as those in portable televisions, some vehicle dashboard readouts, and in postage-stamp sized data screens built into pilots' helmet visors. Because OLEDs emit their own light and can be incorporated into arrays on very thin, flexible materials, they could also be used to fashion large, extremely thin panels for light sources in buildings.

Ballasts

Ballasts consume, transform and control electrical power for electric-discharge lamps, providing the necessary circuit conditions for starting and operating them. Electric-discharge lamps include fluorescent lamps, high-intensity discharge lamps, and low-pressure sodium lamps (US Department of Energy, 2004).

When comparing ballasts, it's important to understand the following performance characteristics:

• Ballast factor (BF): This refers to the ratio of the light output of a lamp or lamps operated by a specific ballast to the light output of the same lamp(s) operated by a reference ballast. It can be used to calculate the actual light output of a specific lamp-ballast combination. BF is typically different for each lamp type. Ballasts with extremely high BFs could reduce lamp life and accelerate lumen deficiency because of high lamp current. Extremely low BFs could also reduce lamp life because they reduce lamp current.
• Ballast efficacy factor (BEF): This refers to the ratio of ballast factor (as a percentage) to power (in watts). BEF comparisons should be made only among ballasts operating the same type and number of lamps.
• System efficacy: This refers to the ratio of the light output to the power, measured in lumens per watt (LPW), for a particular lamp ballast system (US Department of Energy, 2004).

There are three basic types of ballasts:

• magnetic ballasts
• hybrid ballasts
• electronic ballasts.

Ballasts for linear fluorescent lamps that are manufactured in, or imported into, Australia must comply with minimum energy performance (MEPS) requirements, which are set out in AS/NZS 4783.2-2002.

MEPS requirements apply to the following types of ballasts:

• ferromagnetic and electronic ballasts used with linear fluorescent lamps from 15 W to 70 W
• ballasts rated for 50 Hz and 230/240/250V supply (or a range that includes these)
• ballasts supplied as separate components or as part of a luminaire.

Ballasts within the scope of MEPS must also be marked with their energy efficiency by way of their energy efficiency index (EEI), the details of which are also specified in AS/NZS 4783.2-2002. AS/NZS 4783.2-2002 also requires that ballasts within the scope of MEPS be designed to comply with the relevant performance requirements of IEC60921 for ferromagnetic ballasts and IEC60929 for electronic ballasts. These standards are also published by Standards Australia as AS/NZS60921 and AS/NZS60929.

MEPS requirements do not apply to the following types of ballasts:

• ballasts primarily for use on DC supplies or batteries
• ballasts primarily for the production of light (radiation) outside the visible spectrum
• ballasts used in exit signs within the scope of AS/NZS 2293
• ballasts used in hazardous area lighting equipment within the scope of AS/NZS 2380, AS/NZS 60079 and AS/NZS 61241 (Energyrating, 2006).

Luminaires, fixtures and troffers

A lamp or lamp-ballast combination may produce light very efficiently, but if it's installed in an inefficient luminaire, the overall system efficiency may still be poor. The best luminaire manufacturers will design their fixtures around specific lamps, in order to optimise the amount of light delivered to the work area. For example, a luminaire designed specifically for a compact fluorescent lamp can deliver almost ten times as much illumination as an incandescent fixture fitted with the same compact fluorescent lamp (US Department of Energy, 2004).

Recessed fluorescent luminaires (troffers) are the most common luminaire used for commercial lighting. These fittings consist of a painted metal box that is flush-mounted in the ceiling. This box holds anywhere between one and four fluorescent lamps. Troffers are usually used in suspended ceilings, but can also be fitted into fixed ceilings.

The second most common luminaire is the surface mounted batten luminaire. A true batten has a sheet steel spine, upon which the lamps are mounted, and is designed to take a range of different diffuser types (Australian Greenhouse Office, 2005).

Diffusers

Source: Australian Greenhouse Office, 2005

Diffusers are not simply for aesthetics. They perform the critical task of redistributing the light from the lamps to best suit the needs of the environment. This redistribution is normally required for two reasons: to prevent the glare from exposed lamps from irritating workers, and to make the distribution of light at working height more even between fittings. There are several common diffuser types available:

• Prismatic: The most common diffuser is the prismatic diffuser. This is made up from a clear plastic sheet with small pyramids on the lower surface, in a manner similar to the tail light covers on a car. Prismatic diffusers are cheap and quite efficient, and have reasonable glare reduction characteristics.
• Louvred: The louvred diffuser is also quite common, and consists of a series of louvres of typically 4-5 cm spacing, covering the lamp. These diffusers are available in a wide range of types with white or metallic reflecting surfaces, and generally have a high efficiency. While they are seen by many as being the best diffuser, they are often quite expensive and are generally best suited to situations where low glare is specifically required.
• Metallised plastic grid 'parasquare': Metallised plastic grid diffusers have exceptionally low glare characteristics and can be recognised by their fine (1 cm) grid. They are also very cheap in comparison to louvre fittings. However, the plastic grids block much of the light from the lamps. As a result, fittings with these diffusers require 50% more lamps to achieve the same lighting level as that achieved by a properly designed louvre. The difference in energy cost will often pay for a properly designed fitting in a couple of years.
• Opal: Opal diffusers are becoming rarer these days but are still moderately common in older buildings. They have a smooth, milky appearance, and are a little less efficient than a prismatic diffuser.
• Clear covers: Surface mounted luminaires for car parks and under verandas are often provided with clear covers for protection. These are not true diffusers, because they do not attempt to redistribute the light. Clear covers should not be used indoors.

Links:
Australian Greenhouse Office
US Department of Energy: Building technologies program ¿ lighting

Appliance efficiency

In commercial buildings, office equipment, food service equipment, and laundry equipment provide excellent opportunities for reducing energy consumption. Taking care with the use of miscellaneous appliances can help lower energy bills.

Energy Star

Energy Star is an international standard for energy-efficient office equipment, such as computers, printers and photocopiers, and home electronics, such as TVs, audio products and DVD players (Energy Star, 2007). It was created by the US Environmental Protection Agency in 1992 and has now been adopted by several countries around the world, including Australia.

The Australian, state and territory governments are cooperating through the national Energy Star program to encourage the use of energy-efficient equipment at home and in business.

How does it work?
Energy Star reduces the amount of energy consumed by a piece of equipment by either automatically switching it into a 'sleep' mode when it's not being used and/or reducing the amount power it uses when in stand-by mode.

The national Energy Star program
The national Energy Star program is funded by the National Appliance and Equipment Energy Efficiency Committee (NAEEEC) and managed by the Australian Greenhouse Office, on behalf of all jurisdictions.

The national Energy Star program utilises a range of promotional and policy activities to encourage the use and purchase of Energy Star products. Each state, territory and Commonwealth jurisdiction has established, where appropriate, its own Energy Star program, and has facilitated the development of a government purchasing policy to integrate Energy Star equipment into the procurement process.

The program aims to work with private industry and government bodies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and unnecessary energy consumption associated with electrical equipment by ensuring that all office equipment and home electronics used and bought in Australia are Energy Star compliant. It does this by:

• publicising the financial and environmental benefits of purchasing and enabling Energy Star office equipment and home electronics
• working with managers and staff who support or sell such equipment
• promoting the companies who manufacture, distribute and purchase such equipment
• working with the Australian, state and territory governments to integrate Energy Star products into operational and procurement processes.

What are the benefits of using Energy Star products?

• Using energy-efficient office equipment can reduce energy consumption of individual products by more than 50%.
• Heat can cause equipment failure. With power management features activated, equipment generates less heat, so it may last longer. Furthermore, components that cycle, such as hard drives and microprocessors, are more reliable when power management is used.
• As Energy Star products produce less heat, they contribute to a cooler and more comfortable workspace and reduce air-conditioning costs.
• Energy Star-enabled equipment has the added advantage of reducing office noise levels by powering down when not in use.

Links:
Energy Star

Office equipment

Selecting energy-efficient office equipment — personal computers (PCs), monitors, copiers, printers and fax machines — and turning off machines when not in use can result in enormous energy savings. A typical PC operating nine hours a day will use only 38% of the power consumed by a computer operating 24 hours a day. Even shutting off the computer during one-hour lunch breaks saves energy and won't affect the long-term performance of the equipment. Power management devices on computers can reduce energy usage even further, by turning down the power when the computer is not in use. Copiers, laser printers, faxes, and other office equipment can save up to 66% of their 24-hour power consumption if they are only switched on during office hours (US Department of Energy, 2004).

Computers
To save energy used by computers and monitors, either Energy Star-listed equipment or laptop computers should be considered. Energy Star computers must have a power-saving mode that powers down to no more than 15% of maximum power usage. Energy Star monitors power down to 15 W or less after 15 to 30 minutes of inactivity, and then down to 8 W or less after about 70 minutes of inactivity. Laptop computers save even more energy than Energy Star-rated desktop computers and monitors. Laptops draw only 15 to 25 W during use, compared to the 150 W used by a conventional PC and monitor, and their sleep mode typically uses just a fraction of a watt. To maximise savings with a laptop, the AC adapter should be put on a power strip that can be turned off (or that will turn off automatically), as the transformer in the AC adapter draws power continuously, even when the laptop is not plugged into the adapter.

Energy Star computers and monitors save energy only when the energy management features are activated. Energy Star products are shipped with energy-saving features activated. Employees should be able to adjust the energy-saving features to suit their particular needs and work habits (e.g. the length of time before power-down), but should be discouraged from deactivating these features.

Monitors must be capable of entering a low-power state. They should be able to be shut off by a display power monitoring signal (DPMS) signalling protocol, by a software utility, or by a special plug connected to the PC. Universal monitors can accept both a DPMS from a PC and run power management from a non-DPMS PC. There is a common misconception that screen savers reduce energy use by monitors; they do not. Automatic switching to sleep mode or manually turning monitors off is always a better energy-saving strategy.

Food service equipment

Food service equipment consumes much energy and water. New types of high-capacity, multi-stage dishwashing machines, high-efficiency refrigerators, and advanced cooking equipment provide significant opportunities to save resources and money. In each case, heat recovery systems can be used to capture waste energy from appliances and preheat air (for HVAC) or water.

Energy efficiency and water efficiency should be key considerations when outfitting a new kitchen or laundry, as well as when renovating these spaces or replacing individual pieces of equipment. In certain situations, replacement will be justified solely on the basis of energy savings. Measures to recover waste heat should also be considered at the time of new equipment selection or kitchen renovation (US Department of Energy, 2004).

Dishwashers
Most of the energy used by dishwashers is to heat water. Therefore, an efficient dishwasher either uses less water to do the job or heats the water itself.

New high-capacity, multi-stage dishwashing machines are designed for medium-to-large food service operations, such as hospitals, colleges, hotels and restaurants. In addition to reducing water usage and load requirements, labour requirements for operation are reduced by 50%.

Multi-stage dishwashers re-use water from the two rinse stages to pre-wash dishes. In addition to reducing water consumption, these devices save a considerable amount of detergent and rinse additives. Because of their improved design, dish breakage is also significantly reduced. Power scrapers are available for some dishwasher models that remove caked-on and dried food. This can be particularly useful when there is a significant time lag between dish use and dish washing. Typical throughput of dishes in a high-capacity, multi-stage dishwasher is 3,500 to 3,700 dishes per hour, with a conveyor speed of 1.5 m to 1.8 m per minute (US Department of Energy, 2004).

Refrigerators and freezers
In retail buildings, refrigerators and freezers can account for up to 50% of energy consumption. Energy efficiency advances in commercial refrigeration have paralleled those in residential refrigeration since the 1970s.

Refrigerated display cabinets manufactured in, or imported into, Australia must comply with Minimum Energy Performance Standards (MEPS) , which are set out in AS 1731.14-2003. The scope of commercial refrigeration MEPS includes both remote and self-contained refrigerated display cabinets, primarily used in commercial applications for the storage of frozen and unfrozen food.

The standard also defines minimum efficiency levels for 'high efficiency' refrigerated display cabinets. Only products that meet the specified efficiency levels can apply this term to promotional or advertising materials.

The MEPS for commercial refrigeration are set out in AS 1731.14-2003 as total energy consumption per total display area (TEC/TDA) in kWh/day/m² for various unit types (Energyrating, 2006).

Links:
Energy Star
Minimum energy performance (MEPS)

Tools

• Modelling tools
  • Energy simulation
• Building management systems
  • Primary functions of a BMS
  • Benefits of a BMS
  • Choosing the right BMS
  • Why should building systems be integrated?
  • Why do some BMS projects fail?
• Reporting tools

Modelling tools

Energy simulation

Worldwide, hundreds of energy simulation programs have been developed over the last 50 years or so. The majority of these are whole-of-building modelling programs that are able to calculate a range of key energy indicators, such as energy use and demand, temperature and humidity, and costs. Many of these modelling tools focus heavily on the HVAC system, as this is usually the major energy consumer in a building and the most difficult to model. Consequently, these tools are aimed at mechanical engineers and require good knowledge of mechanical services for them to be used effectively.

BCA 2006 (Volume 1) requirements
BCA verification methods JV2 and JV3 apply to Class 3 and Class 5-9 buildings. They require the annual energy consumption of the building to be determined and compared with the stated values in table JV2 or, in the case of JV3, a reference building. Annual energy consumption refers to the theoretical amount of energy used in a year by a building's services, excluding kitchen exhaust and the like (Building Commission Victoria, 2006b).

The BCA requires the annual energy consumption to be calculated using a method that complies with the Australian Building Codes Board (ABCB) protocol for building energy analysis software. The protocol is available from the ABCB.

To meet the protocol, evidence must be available that demonstrates that the building energy analysis software complies with protocol requirements. An up-to-date training program for the current version of the software must also be available. The protocol requires that trainers be technically qualified and well-versed in the functionality of the program and the calculation methods employed.

Programs that currently meet the ABCB protocol include:

• BEAVER/ESP II
• DOE Suite
• eQUEST
• Visual Doe
• EnergyPlus
• TRACE 700
• TAS (Only small user base in Australia)
• IDA ICE
• Apache
• HAP
  
  

Building management systems

Source: Mustafa & Bansal, 2002

These days, energy monitoring systems are integrated into a building's overall management system. Building management systems (BMS') are used in buildings for automatic monitoring and control of services, such as lighting, plumbing, fire services, heating and air-conditioning. The term BMS refers to a system that uses sensors, controls and activators. All these use an electronic digital processor to implement control algorithms and have the capability of communicating with other controls. The term covers all control elements, including hardware, controllers, any linking networks, and central controllers.

Generally, a control system consists of three basic elements: a sensor, a controller and a controlled device. The organisation of these various control elements into a comprehensive BMS is termed the system architecture. Each component in this architecture is connected via a communication system. The communications network is characterised by two essential parts:

• physical medium — transports the signals (e.g. wire, optical fibre, radio)
• protocol — a set of common language rules for the communication signals.

Several protocols have been developed, but not all of them have been exploited for use in BMS'. Historically, manufacturers have developed their own proprietary protocols, but there is now a strong move for standardised protocols. A major advantage of using a BMS network with a standard operating protocol is the degree of compatibility that may be achieved between different pieces of control equipment. It also provides the benefit of using a 'single seat workstation'. BACnet is one the most high-level protocols used in the BMS industry. It can be used to integrate building automation and control products from different manufacturers into a single cohesive system. Other protocols include Lon and Modbus. New vendors have recently started producing BMS' that integrate using Internet protocols and open standards, like SOAP and XML.

Primary functions of a BMS

Building management systems provide a variety of functions. These include:

• automatic on/off switching of plant — this can be based on time, type of day and/or environmental conditions
• monitoring of plant status and environmental conditions — building personnel can be alerted to alarm conditions in time to take remedial action. A good BMS will allow a proactive rather than a reactive approach to the management of service faults
• energy conservation tools — along with good building design and efficient HVAC plant, the BMS plays a vital role in the prevention of energy waste and reducing the environmental impact of the building
• building services management tools — BMS' provides a wide variety of summaries, logs and reports. These provide useful information for forward services and costing. This information can also provide value-added services to tenants so that the perceived worth of the tenancy is increased. For example, after-hours air-conditioning use can be accurately monitored, recorded and automatically invoiced where applicable
• remote monitoring capabilities — BMS' provide centralised monitoring and control. From a single location, information (such as temperatures, pressures and equipment status) can be obtained, indicating how well the building is running. Moreover, this central location is not limited geographically
• fault detection tools — BMS' provides the opportunity to see the big picture of the building systems, which boosts the faults diagnosing process
• the ability to integrate building systems — integration of the building systems allows the facility to run more efficiently, reduces cost and increases the productivity of the facility staff.

Benefits of a BMS

The benefits of an effective modern BMS are experienced by a wide range of building users. However, these benefits will only be obtained if the system is properly specified, installed, commissioned, operated and maintained.

Some of the benefits that are experienced by different user groups are listed below.

Building owners

• Higher rental value
• Flexibility on change of building use
• Individual tenant billing for services

Facilities managers

• Central or remote control and monitoring of building operations
• Low operating cost
• Efficient use of building resources and services
• High productivity
• Rapid alarm indication and fault diagnosis
• Good plant schematics and documentation

Building tenant/occupants

• Effective monitoring and targeting of energy consumption
• Good control of internal comfort conditions
• Possibility of individual room control
• Increased staff productivity
• Improved plant reliability and life
• Effective response to HVAC-related complaints

Maintenance companies

• Ease of information availability problem diagnostics
• Computerised maintenance scheduling
• Effective use of maintenance staff
• Early detection of problems
• More satisfied occupants

(Source: Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers, 2000)

Choosing the right BMS

Buying and installing a BMS is a significant investment. Systems are complex and expensive, and installation can cause disruptions to operations. Facility managers should consider a range of factors to ensure that the BMS they buy is the best system for their facility needs. These considerations include.

• BMS capabilities: The ability of a BMS to control energy cost and to modify the operation of equipment from remote locations reduces energy waste and labour costs, while improving tenant comfort. Also, the integration of building functions and operations in one system is one of the most important features of today's automation systems (Piper, 1998).
• Selecting a system: The selection process should consider the reputation of the supplier and how long the system has been on the market. Other considerations include the training package provided by the supplier to the operation and maintenance staff, the after-sale technical support provided by the supplier, and the supplier's guarantee of spare parts availability for a reasonable future period (Eastwell, 1988).
• System limitations: BMS' are not the cure-all for operations and maintenance problems. While they can help make operations more efficient, they cannot overcome operational shortcomings, such as lack of preventive and planned maintenance.
• Identifying automation needs: BMS' can identify the shortcomings of existing operations. Typical deficiencies that motivate facility managers to consider installing a new building automation system include:
  • high energy use
  • low maintenance productivity
  • unorganised maintenance activities
  • inability to adapt building systems to changing occupant requirements
  • lack of coordination among various building systems.
• System ability to adopt future trends: The selected BMS should be capable of accommodating future trends in the industry easily, so that facility managers in the future can upgrade the systems and adopt new features without incurring huge costs.

Why building systems should be intergrated?

Modern BMS systems provide a single source of enterprise information, by integrating all sub-systems in the building to work in a coordinated manner.

Common reasons why building owners and facility managers prefer to integrate building systems are listed below.

• Site-wide, single seat interface: Single-seat navigation from a central BMS enables facility professionals to view all systems and facilities from one workstation. Information on any system's performance and varying conditions can be viewed, assessed and processed from one common graphical interface. This helps in running a facility more efficiently and at lower cost, while improving staff productivity.
• Use the power of information: Modern technology makes it possible for facility managers to obtain precisely the information they need to achieve a wide range of specific objectives: monitoring, alarming, diagnostics, initial troubleshooting, maintenance, and energy analysis. Shared information between systems means the facility runs more efficiently and at lower cost.
• Respond to occupant and building needs: System integration gives the opportunity for building systems to target occupant comfort efficiently and promptly. By making it easier to be more responsive, integrated systems deliver more efficiency and lower costs.
• Get the most out of what you've got: System integration extends the BMS' capabilities for data collection, archiving, networking and decision making to other building systems. This allows the BMS to tap into inherent strengths of other pieces of equipment that are often under utilised. The organisation gets more mileage out of its investment in equipment.
• Do more with less: Facility professionals are being challenged to do more with the same or fewer resources (e.g. staff reduction, a hiring freeze, the need to expand business without increases in staff). The productivity gains obtained by using a BMS are coupled with savings in operating costs.
• Have vendor independence: Today's BMS design is based predominantly on open system technology, which means that the BMS can communicate with a variety of other systems and applications in a facility, using a range of different protocols. This gives the organisation the ability to choose components and system retrofits in a price-competitive environment. Freedom of choice can bring savings on initial and operating costs.
• Identify a single source of responsibility: For many organisations, this final benefit is the biggest of all. An experienced integrator can put everything together and make it work, from design and installation through to commissioning and customer turnover. A single source of responsibility and one point of contact are also valuable assets when a problem arises. A single source of responsibility means a triple play of efficiency, cost-effectiveness and productivity.

Why do some BMS projects fail?

Unfortunately, too many building automation upgrade projects never achieve their full potential. Common mistakes in project planning that can ruin the project before it gets started include:

• not doing the homework — failing to examine information on product offerings and features available from different manufacturers, and not talking to competitors about lessons they have learnt, can lead to the selection of inappropriate products and features
• not doing the numbers — failing to calculate actual savings gained from BMS systems, or not considering the fact that each building may return small benefits, can over- or under-state the financial benefits of a BMS project. Management also needs to have a solid understanding of the costs and benefits of the project
• keeping it secret — building engineers must be a part of the planning team for the project to succeed. No matter how good the end-product may be, operational staff not involved in the process may become resentful, feel threatened, complain and avoid using the new equipment. The involvement of building engineers in the project is very important
• ignoring the real world — it is absolutely necessary to ensure that what is seen on the computer screen is what is achieved in the real world.
  (Source: Fennimore, 1998).
  
  

Reporting tools

Source: Sustainability Victoria, 2006

Successful energy management depends on setting up a system to collect, analyse and report on an organisation's energy costs and consumption. At its simplest level, a reporting system should have the following features:

• records of historical and ongoing energy use
• cost information from billing data
• a regular summary report
• information to analyse trends and review tariffs.

The aim of reporting is to:

• demonstrate savings that are otherwise difficult to see
• track and trend consumption and demand to monitor site performance
• benchmark energy performance of sites and identify those that need urgent attention
• assist in the divestment of energy costs to end-users
• monitor greenhouse impact.
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